The Inspiration Of Art In Architecture

The Inspiration Of Art In Architecture The essay investigates the inspiration of art in architecture and the links and interchanges between them in the late sixties and early seventies with emphasis on the exchanges between conceptual art and architecture. The basic assumption of the essay is that the rigorous conceptualisation that characterised conceptual artist was transferred into some advanced architectural practices during the late sixties and early seventies. It also discusses about the parameters on which the inspirations are carried further to design process in terms of project conditions. During this process of transforming the art to a design, it passes through the process of adding architectural characteristics. So the essay seeks, how further is the design taken and if it still has the essence of the original art from which it was inspired. The text examines relations and differences between artist Sol Lewitt and architect Peter Eisenman in reference with a few of Eisenmans past works and argues that this dis cussion is still relevant to current practices exploring the potentials of digital based design through the use of parametrics, scripting etc. INTRODUCTION Design should do the same thing in everyday life that art does when encountered : amaze us, scare us or delight us, but certainly open us to new worlds within our daily existence. 1 Aaron Betsky While both art and design can perform a similar role, there is a distinct difference between the two. Art is unladen by boundaries, whereas design takes on the added responsibility of performing a function. The challenge of design is to try and meet the lofty ideals of art while remaining utilitarian. The artists work freed from practicality is more agile and able to freely explore concepts and ideas that will open us to new worlds. Artists are the scientists who research and test concepts; designers are the engineers who translate those discoveries into everyday life. Architects, as designers of spaces, can learn valuable lessons from artists. The same principles that have been tested and found successful in art can become a part of the built environment. Why not have colorful buildings that explode organically like Dale Chihulys glass works? i1 If nothing else, looking at art should remind architects of the artistic possibilities of architecture. This is especially important today, when architecture tends too heavily toward utility. CONCEPTUAL ART I will refer to the kind of art in which I am involved as conceptual art. In conceptual art the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. The idea becomes a machine that makes the art. This kind of art is not theoretical or illustrative of theories; it is intuitive, it is involved with all types of mental processes and it is purposeless. It is usually free from the dependence on the skill of the artist as a craftsman. It is the objective of the artist who is concerned with conceptual art to make his work mentally interesting to the spectator, and therefore usually he would want it to become emotionally dry. 2 Sol Lewitt By Conceptual art I mean work that firstly makes the immaterial ideas that define its artistic concepts and than secondary its object status and method of production. By conceptual architecture I mean that work which tries to do what conceptual art does while retaining some of the distinctive characteristics of architecture. Sol Lewitt (1928-2007) was a painter and sculptor who helped establish Conceptualism as a dominant art movement in the post war era. He was chosen for this study, first and foremost, because he had a similar relationship with his works that an architect does; he planned the pieces but entrusted their execution to others. This distance meant his works were less dependent on rendering techniques to be successful. In this regard, his works are a step closer to architecture than many artists. Another reason LeWitt was selected was his interest in a conceptual art, rather than a perceptual art. The way his pieces looked was important, but not as important as the concept that created them. Architecture deals with environments, which are inherently perceptual, so moving to a conceptual understanding of architecture, seemed to be an interesting challenge and worthwhile pursuit. Many of Sol LeWitts works were never seen by the artist until their exhibition. As an artist he was revolutionary in that he rarely executed his own works, simply because it was unnecessary. Sol LeWitts written instructions for his wall murals are specific about how they are to be produced. For LeWitt, the role of the artist is to create the concept not the object, or in other words, the concept is the art. Applying the idea of a conceptual art to architecture can be a significant challenge. The wellknown American architect and theorist Peter Eisenman explains the challenges succinctly: It is possible to say that while a conceptual art and a conceptual architecture could be similar in an idea state, there is an inherent difference when it comes to the realized object. Where a conceptual art object can remain in a more pure state, for example as a mathematical notation, built architecture takes on cultural, pragmatic, and semantic references. Thus the conceptual aspect of an architecture cannot be defined by what is conceptual in, say, painting and sculpture.11 These thoughts are mirrored by Sol LeWitt: Architecture and three-dimensional art are of completely opposite natures. The former is concerned with making an area with a specific function. Architecture, whether it is a work of art or not, must be utilitarian or else fail completely. Art is not utilitarian. When three-dimensional art starts to take on some of the characteristics, such as forming utilitarian areas, it weakens its function as art.12 Is it then inappropriate to create architecture based solely on concept? Especially when the utility of the space is compromised? If utilitarian concerns are allowed to alter or compromise a space, both Eisenman and LeWitt would agree that work is no longer conceptual. To avoid compromising the artistic concept both LeWitt and Eisenman have decided to make art instead of architecture. The difference being that Eisenman insists on using buildings as his medium; buildings which must to some extent lend themselves to the uses for which they were constructed. By turning his back conceptually on utility, and yet allowing it to happen, his concepts are polluted by the interference. Conceptual art is not necessarily logical. The logic of a piece or series of pieces is a device that is used at times, only to be ruined. Logic may be used to camouflage the real intent of the artist, to lull the viewer into the belief that he understands the work, or to infer a paradoxical situation (such as logic vs. illogic). Some ideas are logical in conception and illogical perceptually. The ideas need not be complex. Most ideas that are successful are ludicrously simple.16 The interesting thing is that this irony is really the only meaningful substance behind the work. When LeWitt talks about wanting the viewer to understand the concept behind the work, it appears that the concept is simply the set of rules that guided the actions. Discovering the rules is certainly mentally interesting, but only represents another layer of subjective decisions front loaded into the project. This superficial level of meaning can be seen in the work of several contemporary architects including Peter Eisenmans superimposed lines of influence. Conceptual arts focus on process during the 60s was an attempt to banish a number of conventions around the work of art: art as reified totem, art as static shape, aesthetic formalism, the manual contribution of the artist to the work, and so on. However, the invocation of art in architecture had a rather different series of concerns. For instance, Peter Eisenmans citation of process art practices in his early house projects, while invoking LeWitts ideas, was ultimately attempting to mimic his forms. Conceptual architecture during the 70s thus neatly overlapped the International Style, minimalist aesthetics, and conceptual art strategies. Borrowing from Sol LeWitts and Lawrence Weiners arguments on the primacy of the generating idea over its material properties, Eisenmans notion of an autonomous architecture privileging form over construction gained currency in critical and academic circles. Sol LeWitt here describes his distinction between art and architecture: Architecture and three-dimensional art are of completely opposite natures. The former is concerned with making an area with a specific function. Architecture, whether it is a work of art or not, must be utilitarian or else fail completely. Art is not utilitarian. When three-dimensional art starts to take on some of the characteristics of architecture such as forming utilitarian areas itweakens its function as art. When the viewer is dwarfed by the large size of a piece, this domination emphasizes the physical and emotive power of the form at the expense of losing the idea of the piece. In other words, art that becomes utilitarian does not make it architectural, only less convincing as art; similarly, architecture that denies its utilitarian, practical nature is weak architecture. In answering these questions I have sought to investigate and elaborate upon a previously recognised correlation between Eisenmans work and that of conceptual artists, Sol LeWitt in particular. The introduction of conceptual art raises issues of value in respect of the finished piece. That is it would seem that in work of a conceptual nature, the idea, can only be hindered by the existence of a final piece. The question that often arises is why, given the conflict it causes, bring the idea to a physical reality? If, as is usually the case, it is deemed necessary to realise the object what, if anything, should accompany the work to facilitate its understanding? During this period we find a particular fruitful exchange of ideas between artist and architects that is still relevant to current aesthetic thinking. The focus here is mainly on the architectural consequences and potentials of these exchanges (1). It is possible to argue that an unbroken lineage of architectural thinking and designing runs right up to today. A number of current architectural practices that explores digitally based working methods seems to face some of the same conceptual and aesthetic challenges that conceptual artist such as for instance Sol Lewitt was exploring. The article will attempt to point out some of the still active and relevant questions. The aim of this investigation is not only to give an accurate account of a historically situated set of ideas. It is just as much a starting point for an artistic development work that is fuelled by the investigations. This work is briefly presented at the end of the article. It is not to be seen as a solution or a concl usion to the questions that is raised during the article. The aim is rather to suggest an approach to architectural research that includes academic as well as design based research without one part being seen as a justification for the other, but hopefully rather instigates a productive gap between the two. What makes architecture conceptual is that unlike art, it demands not only the primacy of intention to take something from the sensual to the intellectual realm, but also that this intention be present in the conceptual structure; again, whether it is built or not, is not at issue. 1 Peter D. Eisenman Design Quarterly, No. 78/79, Conceptual Architecture (1970), pp. 1-5Published by: Walker Art Center This section explores three concepts integral to the work of Sol LeWitt: Concept, Series, and Reductivism. In conceptual art the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. Sol LeWitt Ulrik Schmidt has described the characteristics of minimal art as objectivity, non-illusionism and reality, an abstract-concrete appearance as well as non-expressionism and non-anthropomorphism using principles of unity and uniformity, non-relationalism, instrumentalisation and, more profoundly, repetition. (2) Schmidt traces a desubjectivation in minimalist art. he describes an approach to the work of art where the artist withdraws from directly influencing the work of art, creating, as Lewitt states it, a situation where all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is a perfunctory affair. Through much modernist thinking runs an interest in objectivisation. Minimal art could be seen as the logicand extremeconclusion of some of modernisms basic assumptions, as well as an inherent criticism of these assumptions. (3) To a certain extent one might claim that this separation of conceptualisation and execution is how architects have been working at least since the academisation of architecture in the renaissance, when architects became detached from the directly involvement in the realisation of the works they designed. obviously the minimal arts movement investigates the consequences of this separation of conception and execution much further than the average architect, but it might still be one of the reasons for the prolific transfer of ideas from minimal art to architecture. Another reason could be that the formality and use of geometry that one find in the practices of artist such as Sol Lewitt or Robert Morris might have certain affinities to architecture. In any case there seems to be a parallel interest in conceptually articulated, systematic manipulations of form of these artists and the architectural designs of Peter Eisenman and likeminded architects such as John Hejduk, Michael Graves and Richard Meier during the late sixties and early seventies. There are for instance obvious common traits between Lewitts art and Eisenmans ar chitecture (Werner Petersen 1990: 19). Lewitts drawings and sculptures are generated through rule based, straightforward transformations of simple geometrical figures. The series of transformed figures are systematically organised in matrixes that conclusively describes all the possible combinations of the operations. In this way the works of Lewitt seems to explore a dilemma between the transparent logic of the formal operations and the apparent purposelessness of the result. Everything about the process is explained and understandable and yet the result seems to be without inherent meaning, at least if meaning is understood as a specific insight or sensibility expressed through the work. Something similar characterises Peter Eisenmans early projects. They are perhaps less abstract, as they are based on a recognisable modernistic vocabulary utilising the formal analyses Eisenman made of modernist architects such as Terragni (Eisenman 2003). But the complex decomposition of Eisenman basically explores a similar and deliberate lack of inherent meaning, even though the projects are at once paraphrasing, praising and mocking their modernist heritage. It seems to be an important point that the processes and transformational logic is readable in the work. In Sol Lewitts Variations of incomplete open cubes from 1974, every possible combination of the open cube is constructed and presented in a comprehensive scheme that makes it possible for anyone who would care to check, that all variations are present. This inclusive logic, where every possible variation of a finite series of possibilities is present without differentiation, is a way to eliminate any form of subjective choice or design decision from the realised work. One finds a similar logic in Eisenmans early architecture. house II from 1969-70 uses a nine-square grid that allows for a highly systematised series of transformations and superimpositions of columns, walls and volumes within the grid. Eisenmans design process is obviously more complex than Lewitts. In Lewitts art pieces the ordering principle is mostly immediately readable. It points didactically to the logic that has constructed the piece. Eisenmans process is more convoluted and probably only directly traceable by referring to the laborious complex drawings that accompany the published project, even though the realised project displays obvious traces of the process. This complexity might be partly relating to the requirements of a habitable structure. But more importantly it is probably related to an exploration of the syntax of architectural space. For Eisenman geometry is not an abstract spatial system. It is already imbedded within an architectural tradition and Eisenman uses the systematic spatial transformations to break down preestablished notions of spatial organisation in architecture. (4) Sol Lewitt seems to employ a more innocent notion of geometry. In his work geometry seems to be perceived as an abstract system devoid of connotations. It mainly serves as a vehicle that allows general conceptual ideas to enter into physical form. The properties and rules of geometry make it possible to develop and translate general principles. Lewitts frequent use of cubes might be understood as part of this approach. The orthogonal angles and equal length of the sides of the cube does not refer to an idealised geometry, but is rather considered as a default option uninfluenced by specific conditions or contexts. The white colours and anonymous materials further support this idea, hinting at standardisation and industrialised production. But even if this idea is easily understandable one could question whether Lewitt is successful in completely breaking any connotations and relations. The cubes might after all still refer to previous notions of a relation between ideal geometries an d meaningful forma frequent belief throughout the history of architecture. Even if these connotations are unintended by Lewitt, the vague recognisability might still be an important part of the fascination of his work. (5) The project that accompanies this article is part of an ongoing research by design project by the author. It could be thought of as a conclusion to the text. In this case it would of course not be understood as a summation of the findings of the paper and putting these findings into perspective of already existing research. It would rather be a conclusion in terms of trying to establish a relation between an analysis of and reflection on an existing body of work and a new work that tries to explore and expand some of the findings of the analysis. In this way the accompanying project could be considered as a continuous exploration of some of the conceptual and formal questions raised in Lewitt and Eisenmans works. The work is based on a formal exploration of a nine-square grid. This exploration is structured on a combinatory series of objects based on an adapted menger spongeprinciple (Fig. 1)6. Instead of removing the central cube of each nine square grid in each step as in the origi nal menger sponge, the project removes a different number of cubes in every iteration. This logic can be explored in different ways. Fig. 2 describes a transformative series based on three iterations where the first iteration removes two cubes, the next four and the last one. In this case it is possible to remove four cubes in 12 different ways from the nine-square grid (with the precondition that the variations are limited to those that are symmetrical along a vertical axis). This produces a series of 12 different cubic objects (Fig. 3) that unfolds the possible variations. This series is then in turn one of a series of the six possible ways the three iterative levels can be combined (1-2-4, 1-4-2, 2-1-4, 2-4-1, 4-1-2 and 4-2-1) resulting in 72 different objects (see Figs. 4-6 for examples). It is using the didactic approach of Lewitt where the formative logic is immediately accessible and readable. Instead of Peter Eisenmans critical dissection of the formal syntax of modernist architecture or Lewitts exploration of the concept as artistic motor it attempts to explore the proliferation of formal organisations made possible by systematised processes. The resulting objects are just as purposeless as Lewitts sculptures. But at the same time the cubic shapes and hierarchically nested geometries hopefully hint at architectural or perhaps rather protoarchitectural potentials. - CASE STUDIES Peter Eisenman You would be better qualified to answer that question than I would. The energy of Terragni permeated my early work; House I is certainly Terragni, but House II is much more influenced by, say, Rosalind Krausss writing on contemporary art at the time and the idea of sculpture in the expanded field and the work of minimalist sculptors Robert Morris and Sol LeWitt. By House II, Krauss and I were working closely-she eventually wrote Notes on the Index in October 3 and 4, which became key to House IV. The Wexner Center at Ohio StateUniversity by Peter Eisenman is an exam-ple of a building that exhibits characteris-tics motivated by the framework of thekit-of-parts problem. It is a spatially com-plex building that discounts the materialfacts of the architecture except as they serve as signs. The richly overlappingspaces, whether implied by frames orplanes, are all defined by painted gypsumboard and off-the-shelf acoustic ceilingsystems. Brick is selectively deployed to al-lude to pre-existing buildings on the site(in a series of faux ruins), but not for itsmaterial qualities and uses. The programcontent of the building is not the driver of design development; the form of thebuilding is instead a result of the selectivemapping of physical forces on the site,resulting in an itinerary that is choreo-graphed both outside and inside the build-ing. The overlap of competing spatialsystems is generated by two axes that existon the campus; the program/content andthe constructional logic pla y relatively mi-nor roles in the design. Perhaps it is therelative disregard for the quality of thebuilding materials and details that makesthe Wexner Center so decidedly postmod-ern in character today.Whether the underlying moti Series Serial compositions are multipart pieces with regulated changes. The differences between the parts are the subject of the composition. If some parts remain constant it is to punctuate the changes.22 Sol LeWitt The primary method of communicating the concept in Sol LeWitts work is the use of series. By presenting objects in series, any difference between the objects immediately becomes the focus of the piece. If three forms are equal in all aspects, with the exception of height, the viewer automatically assumes that the height is the focus. Works in series can really only be appreciated when viewed together as a series. A direct application within architecture therefore would most naturally happen with a group of buildings in close proximity. This may be on the scale of a college campus, a business park, or several small structures on a residential lot. The difficulty is that most architecture is developed on the basis of a single building at a time. Where more than one building is employed the scale of projects may make it difficult to discern the variations. It may be necessary to introduce smaller scale elements, such a building details, which provide clues about the larger moves within the grouping.

Media and the Criminal Justice System Essay

Media has a strong influence on today’s society and the criminal justice system. Interaction with the media continues to create problems in overcoming the racial disparities in this nation, due to crime that is committed by ethnic minorities in the media increasing racial stereotypes. Media also has a great influence and disadvantages regarding high profile criminal cases, affecting the way Americans view the criminal justice system. High exposure to the news and entertainment media has been proven it increase fear,which can rise the crime rates in communities. In any case, when turning on the news and looking through the pages of a local newspaper, minorities , mostly African-Americans are the central focus of crime ,creating the portal that blacks are the main source of crime in our nation (see figure 1). The graph below shows the increasing amount of black on black crimes over the years. A 2007 special report released by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, reveals that approximately 8,000 — and, in certain years, as many as 9,000 African Americans are murdered annually in the United States .The media has led to racial stereotypes of African-Americans due to the amount of â€Å"black on black† crime that is reported everyday. Fig. 1. Homicide victims by race and gender of the victims 1933-2005;Department of Justice Report;2007 More so, informing the public of what occurred instead of solutions to the problem. This issue results to a misunderstanding by the viewer who assumes that the images and facts portrayed are representations of racial groups as a whole, instead of those particular people that are being mentioned. Read more:  Advantages and Disadvantages of Mass Communication The media can also influence the law enforcement opinion of blacks, they have been many illegal actions on the basis of an individual race and ethnicity known as racial profiling. In addition,victims who are an ethnic minority are rarely featured on the news, unlike Caucasian victims who claim the spotlight in media entertainment. Such as the murder of Teryvon Martin. As a result, of the media’s false portrayals of crime and offenders has resulted in the continuation of prejudicial beliefs in our country. The main point of this issue is the problem of racial profiling that exists in various communities within our society including the criminal justice system. However, media coverage or press attention in criminal cases poses its advantages and disadvantages. Publicity can cause unknown witnesses to come forward so that their information may be considered and the facts correctly determined. It can also help to ensure that the person who is charged is being treated fairly by subjecting their decisions to the public. Media coverage can also provide the encouragement for needed changes in the criminal justice system . Media in criminal cases can also have its disadvantages. Publicity may cause some judges or prosecutors, particularly those who must re elected , to act in a manner to help his or her votes rather than in the manner of fairness and justice. The media can also influence the jurors decision. There are laws that protects a jury from being influenced by media reporting, but there have been situations where criminal cases hear claims that a defendant cannot get a fair trial because of the media. These concerns are taken seriously by judges and also by reporters and editors who can face imprisonment for compromising the legal process. Yet there has been many opinions from lawyers and journalists, that most juries are sophisticated enough to ignore media reports when they are asked to return a verdict.There have been many high profile cases where the media influence the public and exposed themselves in a negative manner , as well as informed the public of the wrongdoing of the criminal justice system. For example, The Treyvon Martin case exposed the worst in the media. Similar to what I stated in the beginning of this paper. The media rarely broadcast victims that are African-American. It took one month for the Treyvon Martin shooting to air on the news. Another incident that shows the lack of integrity in the media, is the video of George Zimmerman arriving at the police station. After ABC News aired surveillance video of George Zimmerman, entering a police precinct without any apparent injuries, another news program enhanced still images from the video and concluding that it found â€Å"what may be an injury to the back of his head.† The site’s photo â€Å"analysis† photoshopped the back of Zimmerman’s head with yellow arrows and stated this it†indicates what appears to be a vertical laceration or scar several inches long.† These statements were lately deemed as false. As, I mentioned above, the media can inform the public of the wrongdoing in the criminal justice system. The Drew Peterson trial allowed hearsay to be presented as evidence in the case,though hearsay is stated as unconstitutional. A change in the law was made in order to use the hearsay against him. The media informed the public of the matter. The Daily Center is also the same news program that published the 152 pages of Martin’s tweets from a social networking site known as Tweeter. The judge, Debra S. Nelson of Seminole County Circuit Court, said Mr. Martin’s Twitter, Facebook and school records were relevant in the self-defense case. The media influenced the judge to allow the tweets to analyze Martin’s personality , which might have been seen as a typical high school male, focused on girls, sex and getting out of class early, or to be used against him in order to show whether a victim â€Å"had an alleged propensity to violence† or aggression, the judge said. Similar to any other teenager his â€Å"tweets† focused on ditching school and girls, using them in a criminal case is a bias approach to the situation. Another show, The Today Show underwent an internal investigation from NBC regarding the editorial process after its morning show aired an edited conversation between George Zimmerman and a 911 dispatcher recorded before the shooting. The investigation came after Fox News and others pointed out that the network joined two parts of the call together, making it appear as if Zimmerman had said, â€Å"This guy looks like he’s up to no good. He looks black.† In reality, Zimmerman was answering a dispatcher’s question: Zimmerman: This guy looks like he’s up to no good. Or he’s on drugs or something. It’s raining and he’s just walking around, looking about. Dispatcher: OK, and this guy–is he black, white or Hispanic? Zimmerman: He looks black.(02 April 2012) The actions that the media took influenced the public and the courts and showed the negative aspects of allowing the media to inform the public. This case in particular showed the amount of racism, lack of integrity that exist in media entertainment. The fear of crime can be associated with media exposure. The media in general tends to exaggerate the crime . For example, the crime that you are more likely to see on the news are in relation to gun violence, the same thing can be found on the internet and newspaper. Crime through media is intended to draw the reader in, and interest them. Yet a daily exposure can encourage fear in the viewer. The fear of crime can outweigh the actual risks. Those who are in fear of crime tend to stay home rather than venture outdoors, this can increase the amount of crime. Signs of incivility in a community rises the crime rate due to â€Å"criminals being drawn to communities where they perceive a lack of of social control by local residents†(p.281). Another reason for promoting a certain fear of crime is money. By increasing the idea of violent crime, the dominant culture are more likely to invest in certain protections. The media lacks integrity due to broadcasting stories that attacks the reputation of African-Americans and other ethnic minorities. They exaggerate stories that can create moral panic and this can also be seen as a way of controlling how the public behaves. Racial profiling is associated with the media due to people seeing mostly blacks committed crimes. Mass media can control the outcome of criminal cases by brainwashing the jurors, controlling the verdict of the case. The relationship between media and crime creates strong influence on the publics view of crime and the criminal justice system, overall having a power influence on both. Works Cited

HIPAA’s Pros and Cons Essay

HIPAA or what is known as the â€Å"Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996† has its pros and cons (United.., 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pros include the following:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HIPAA guarantees dependability and promptness of â€Å"electronic patient health, administrative, and financial data† (HIPAA, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HIPAA implements rules, policies, and standards that maintain the confidentiality and soundness/constancy of â€Å"individually identifiable health information covering the past, present, as well as, the future† (HIPAA, 2006). For instance, in case where an established institution needs an individual’s record, this individual is ensured that his or her personal information is safe with that institution (HIPAA, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Cons, on the other hand, include the following:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HIPAA negatively affects the access of clients to their medical records (United.., 2007). This is because information may be â€Å"pending† to those who have the right to get hold of it because of the penalties enforced (United.., 2007). This is also because of the fact several health care providers are unsure when it comes to the legalities of the Act (United.., 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   HIPAA also does not have a positive impact or effect on health research (United.., 2007). This is because of the fact that HIPAA limits or controls the researchers’ conscientiousness to carry out â€Å"retrospective, chart-based research† (United.., 2007). In addition to that, HIPAA restricts researchers to â€Å"prospectively assess patients by getting in touch with them for the purpose of follow-up† (United.., 2007). Not to mention of course that, in terms of, â€Å"informed consent† forms, wide-ranging and far-reaching detail on how confidentiality is safeguarded is necessitated making it more complicated for subjects to grasp before they could sign in, which usually ends in not signing at all because they do not know what they will be signing on (United.., 2007). References       United States Department of Health and Human Services. (2007). HIPAA. Retrieved December 5, 2007 from   http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/hipaa/ HIPAA. (2006). Unsure How to Handle HIPAA? Retrieved December 5, 2007 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.hipaa.org/

Stress and Play on the Brain - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 9 Words: 2825 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/08/16 Category Health Essay Level High school Tags: Stress Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Stress is a state of mind characterized by restlessness, anxiety, and worry (Greenberg, 2017). Stress has numerous effects on the human brain and the effects are both short and long term. The effects also depend on the magnitude and the type of the stress. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Stress and Play on the Brain" essay for you Create order On the other hand, play also represents an important role in the development of the human brain, as it involves muscle relaxation, and mood regulation. For this reason, this will attempt to explain the positive and negative effects of stress and play on the human brain from infancy to adulthood using existing psychological theories. Stress The study of the relationship between stress and brain development is a subject that captures the attention of many people. People such as Sigmund Freud have incisive literature that explains discursively the impact of stress on the brain (Greenberg, 2017). However, before going into the details, it is important to mention that the term stress is relative in the sense it could be mild or chronic depending on the impact on an individual. In addition, it is worth mentioning that stress affects both the brain and the physical body. In this paper I will try to illustrate the impact of stress on the brain and the physical body. Sigmund Freud is among the first people to study the impact of stress of on the brain and human health. He examined Anna O, a woman who was suffering from hysterical signs that were related to the heinous sexual harassment scenes she had witnessed in her life (Contrada Baum, 2012). The exposure to traumatic experiences in her childhood affected her brain and made her uneasy, more anxious, and restless most of the time. While examining her, Freud found out that she was suffering from the effects of traumatic stress because of her exposure to sexual harassment as a child. Studies in human beings and animals show that stress has immense impact on the brain development especially during infancy. Children feel the strongest impact of stress in relation to adults. This explains the reason children show heightened sensitivity to the things that happen around them than adults do in life (Greenberg, 2017). The changes they show come from the fact that the stress they experience from their environment affects their brain and molds behavior. During infancy, children undergo immense changes in their body structures; as a result, they feel stress no matter how mild it is. In human beings, adults, and children, stress functions by triggering the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This leads to the production of glucocorticoids in the adrenals. The effect of the production of steroids in the brain is that expression of their receptors is even across the brain (Contrada Baum, 2012). As a result, they always act as factors for transcription affecting the expression of genes and other biological factors in a child. Therefore, it is important to minimize a childs stress because too much stress does not only affect their brain development but it also affects gene expression, which is an important biological process in the development of humans. Therefore, when studying the effects of stress on brain development, the different stages, prenatal, infancy, puberty, adulthood, and old age are critical. Prenatal Stress In animal and human studies, early exposure to stress leads to the programming effect on the brain and (HPA) axis. This happens in many ways. The first method of causing stress at the prenatal stage is by exposing expectant mothers to stress. In such a case, more the body reacts by secreting more maternal glucocorticoid that pass through the placenta to the unborn child. This leads to the modification of the brain and increase HPA axis activity in the fetus. Scientific findings argue that Glucocorticoids are important components of the body that help in brain maturation (Contrada Baum, 2012). However, exposing the fetus to the excess of glucocorticoids affects or impairs their normal brain development. This is the reason it is important to keep pregnant women free from stress for both their health and the development of the babies they carry in their wombs. The stress experienced by a pregnant woman infiltrates into the child though the placenta in the form of Glucocorticoids. Glucocorticoids are vital for normal brain development and maturation in myriad ways. First, they help with remodeling dendrites and axons. Second, they are important because they help trigger terminal maturation. Third, glucocorticoids play a crucial role in cell survival. For example, when the supply glucocorticoids is insufficient or in excess, the brain cannot go through the developmental processes mentioned above (Levine Munsch, 2011). It is important for the body to maintain an optimum supply of glucocorticoids to initiate normal brain development and maturation. Increased stress on expectant mothers produces glucocorticoids in excess, which leads to reduced glucocorticoid receptors and mineralocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus. This affects gene transcription and normal child development. Postnatal Stress Postnatal stress is evident among infants. Unlike in the prenatal stage, postnatal stress does not pass through the mother to the children; the infants experience it by themselves. Their bodies react to the stressors individually (Levine Munsch, 2011). However, because the brains of the infant are still undergoing maturation and development, the impact can be adverse depending its magnitude. Studies indicate that children who spend most of their early days out of home because of a working mother have increased levels of glucocorticoids than those who spend their postnatal days with their biological parents (Levine Munsch, 2011). Research also indicates that the levels of glucocorticoids are higher in infants who spend the full-day away-from-home day care than those in pre-school. Arguably, therefore, maternal separation among infants increases the levels of glucocorticoids, which affects the normal brain development of a child as discussed above. The interaction between parents and children also play an important role and influence HPA axis activities. In the first years of a childs development, the state of HPA system is often labile, but sensitive parenting has the effects of increasing or sustaining it for prolonged spells (Levine Munsch, 2011). Maternal depression, however, has the tendency of affecting the levels of HPA activity, thus leading to increased production of glucocorticoids which affect the normal development and growth of the brain among infants. Stress in Adolescence The adolescence stage is a critical level of human development. It serves as a transitional stage and takes one from childhood into adulthood. During this stage, the bodies of both boys and girls go through robust hormonal and physical changes. For this reason, the HPA axis activity and the levels of glucocorticoids are often higher compared to the childhood stages stated above (Broome Llewelyn, 2015). As the body changes, the brain also changes among both boys and girls as they are initiated into adulthood. People in this stage are sensitive to stress and stressors. At this stage, the hippocampus is mature, but the amygdala and the frontal cortex are still developing. In human beings, the hippocampus matures by the time an individual is about two to three years old. A comparative study between the development of hippocampus between human beings and rodents indicate adolescents rats continue with the development of the hippocampus, which is not the case with humans (Broome Llewelyn , 2015). Therefore, during adolescence, stress affects two main parts of the brain, the amygdala, and cortex, which are also vital organs. Studies shows that elevated levels of stress and increased production of glucocorticoids affects the normal development of the cortex and the amygdala. During this stage people start to experience the longtime effects of early exposure to stress. For example, adolescents who grew up in stressful environments characterized by economic hardships, abusive parents, neglects, and other stressor have heightened baseline glucocorticoids (Broome Llewelyn, 2015). On the other hand, adolescents who grew up in stress free homes with sufficient supply of basic needs, and caring parents, among other things have reduced levels of baseline glucocorticoids. For this reason, if one takes an adolescent who grew up in stressful environment for PTSD diagnosis, the likelihood that they will show reduced brain volume is often higher than in those who grew with minimal stress (Oxington, 2015). For this reason, one could argue that one of the long-term effects of stress on adolescents is reducing the volume of their brain among other things. Other effects of stress on adolescent brains include alteration of the volume of the grey matter and reduction of s ize or volume of anterior cingulate cortex. For this reason, the most affected region of the brain because of stress during adolescence is often the frontal cortex because it continues to develop at this stage of life. Stress in Adulthood In adulthood, the effect of stress produces a U-shaped curve of the relationship between cognitive performance and glucocorticoids levels (Oxington, 2015). At this stage, effects of stress are more pronounced and evident through things such as reduced self-esteem and other things such as elevated basal glucocorticoid. Like in adolescence, adults who grew up in stressful environments begin to continue feeling the long-term impacts of early exposure. Stressed adults mostly test positive when diagnosed for PTSD. Other effects of stress on adults include things such as hyper-activity of HPA axis. Stress and Physical Development Other than the effects on the brain mentioned above, stress is also responsible for several physical changes that occur in the human body. The first impact of stress is obesity. Stressed people tend to eat a lot of food, a condition that is normally referred to as stressful overeating. This is because when one is anxious, the stomach reacts by producing more gastric and peptic acids that burn the walls of the stomach hence leading to increased hunger pangs even if one is not hungry (Oxington, 2015). For this reason, they tend to eat more calories that build up in the body leading to overweight and obese bodies. Depending on an individual, stress could also lead to malnutrition and starvation. Some people lack appetite for food when under chronic stress, deprives them essential vitamins and nutrients for healthy living. Positive impact of Stress Even though stress is not healthy for brain development, mild stress can push one towards achievement of goals and objectives (Oxington, 2015). For example, when a student is worried about the forthcoming exams, they read their notes and do research in preparation for the exams. Eventually, they find themselves passing the classes because of the anxiety that they had before the exam. People are also driven to success by stressors such as the need to pay bills, the responsibility to fend for the family, and fulfill other financial needs. Stress Management Stress management is the art of getting control of the stressors to ensure that it does not lead to chronic levels (Oxington, 2015). People with effective stress management skills come out of stressful situations without getting hurt. Effective stress management entails understanding and manipulating the stressors to ones own advantage. For example, one of the most effective ways dealing with stressors is avoidance, which refers to keeping away from anything that is likely to cause stress (Oxington, 2015). When one senses that the argument they are having is likely to escalate into a quarrel, they can avoid stress by leaving it. Alternatively, avoid any form of arguments in future life. This helps in ensuring that one protects themselves from fatal outcomes of stress. Another effective stress management skill is confrontation of the problem. This entails one facing and dealing with the stressor such as asking for forgiveness and seeking reconciliation after a fight. Dealing with the problem helps with stopping the recurrence of the stressor. Play Like stress, play also represents a crucial role in developing the brain of human beings. However, even though play is healthy for human brain development, too much of it can be destructive in many different ways (Frost, Wortham, Reifel, 2012). Brain development in human beings depends largely on activities that people do. When children play, they are able to stimulate hormonal process that initiate growth, replication, and differentiation of brain cells hence bringing about important changes not only on the structure of the brain, but also the quality of its function. For this reason, parents should encourage their children to play more in their childhood to make brain development a smooth process. In children, play is not always about having fun and enjoyment; it is a process that brings about key changes in their ability to relate with the environment, develop their brain, intellect, and body. Studies suggest the predominant method of learning among children through experiment (Hughes, 2010). Children experiment in many ways. During the early stages of life, they mostly rely of their senses of taste, touch, and hearing. For example, between 6 months and 2 years, most children will want to experience their world by touching almost everything that they come across, tasting, and listening to voices around them. Between 3 and 9 months, the brain has neurons that are never used in a persons life. For this reason, it is always important that brain gets rid of such neurons to create enough room for the most useful ones (Hughes, 2010). One of the effects of play in the brain of a child between these ages is that it releases such neurons by generating ones that are more useful. Physical movements and excitement by children when playing have the effect of stimulating specific growth hormones in the brain, to release fresh neurons and get rid of useless ones. At early stage, the brain cells for various sensory activities start developing as the child moves around interacting with different things in their environment. For example, between the first and the fourth month, playing with objects in the hands helps in the development of the sensory nerves and neurons for sight (Hughes, 2010). As these aspects develop in an infant, cells replicate allowing the brain to remove all the neurons that are not required. Constant interactions with an infant helps with the development of the childs memory, as they remember the experiences they have with the caregiver and the different objects of play. Other than indoor play, a child also needs interactive activities with the outside world. Children learn more from the outside world that help with developing their hearing sensory nerves, motor skills, among other important things in their development. For instance, while playing outside, children are introduced to different sounds and voices. As they hear these voices and try to differentiate them, the brain triggers the development of neurons and nerves used for hearing (Hughes, 2010). In the process, the brain replaces useless neurons with important ones to reinforce the sense of hearing, which is one of the important senses in human life. Outside play also plays an important role in developing the part of the brain responsible for smelling objects. While playing outside, children interact with different smells in the environment; some of the smells are bad while others are good (Stiles, 2008). This allows the child to differentiate the two smells, the good scents, and the odor. In the process of smelling different things from the outside, the brain develops neurons and nerves for developing a strong sense of smell in the infant. Therefore, it is important for the child to play outside for them to develop the sense of smell. Between 10 months and 1 year, a child begins to experience different forms of stress and anxiety (Coch, 2010). As discussed in the earlier, stress has an effect of affecting the HPA axis activities, which depending on their levels can affect the brain development in an infant. During this stage, play helps deal with the different types of stress and anxiety, fear, and irritability. This helps in developing the brain structures of a child such as hippocampus, which only develop until when a child is about two to three years of age. Play is important in shaping the development of a childs brain as a whole. Conclusion Stress affects the development of the brain in all stages of life, while constructive play helps develop the brain of human beings starting from the early stages of life to adulthood. Play is not only important for children, but also for adults, and adolescents because it releases them of the negative impacts of stress such as anxiety, fear, and irritability, which have adverse impact on the development of the brain at all stages of human life. References Broome, A., Llewelyn, S. P. (2015). Health psychology: Process and applications. London: Chapman Hall. Coch, D. (2010). Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development. New York: Guilford. Contrada, R., Baum, A. (2012). The Handbook of Stress Science: Biology, Psychology, and Health. New York: Springer Pub. Co. Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., Reifel, R. S. (2012). Play and child development. Boston: Pearson. Greenberg, M. (2017). The stress-proof brain: Master your emotional response to stress using mindfulness and neuroplasticity. Hughes, F. P. (2010). Children, play, and development. Los Angeles: Sage. Levine, L. E., Munsch, J. (2011). Child development: An active learning approach. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE. Oxington, K. V. (2015). Psychology of stress. New York: Nova Biomedical Books. Stiles, J. (2008). The fundamentals of brain development: Integrating nature and nurture. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.